-Nightshade spp. Outline & Bibliography (1998)
a. Nightshades
b. buffalobur (S. rostratum)
c. horse nettle (S. carolinense)
d. taxa: complex of associated species or demography
Prepared by: Rebecca Goodhue, April 1998
I. Introduction to Solanum
A. Species of Solanum
1. There are several species within the Solanum genus.
Solanum americanum
American black nightshade
Solanum carolinese L
Carolina horsenettle
Solanum citrullifolium A. Braun
Watermelon nightshade
Solanum dimidiatum Raf.
Western horsenettle
Solanum douglasii
Douglas’ Nightshade
Solanum dulcamara L.
Climbing nightshade or European bittersweet
Solanum elaeagnifolium
Silverleaf nightshade
Solanum jasminoides
Potato Vine, Jasmine nightshade
Solanum laciniatum
Kangaroo apple
Solanum mauritianum
Woolly nightshade
Solanum melongena L.
Eggplant
Solanum nigrum L.
Black nightshade
Solanum physalifolium Rusby
Hoc nightshade
Solanum prostrastum
Prickly nightshade
Solanum pseudocapsicum L.
Jerusalem cherry
Solanum ptycanthum
Eastern black nightshade
Solanum rostratum Dunal
Buffalobur nightshade
Solanum sarrachoides Sendtner
Hairy Nightshade
Solanum seaforthianum
no common name
Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.
Sticky nightshade
Solanum tampicense
Wetland nightshade
Solanum tenuilobatum Parish
Narrow-leafed nightshade
Solanum triflorum Nutt.
Cutleaf nightshade
Solanum tuberosum L.
Irish Potato
Solanum umbelliferum
Blue witch
Solanum wendlandii
Potato vine, Giant potato creeper
Alternate names:
Solanum americanum
Solanum nodiflorum
Solanum mauritianum
Solanum auriculatum
(Phillips, 1997); (James, 1991); (Fuller and McClintock, 1986)
2. The Solanum nigrum complex is a group of four species which are difficult to distinguish.
a. The four species are
1. S. nigrum
2. S. americanum
3. S. Sarrachoides
4. S. ptycanthum
b. Difficult to distinguish because
1. They are morphologically similar
2. These four species are all highly phenotypically plastic.
c. Chromosome numbers differ in the complex
1. 2n=24: American black nightshade, Hairy nightshade, Eastern black nightshade
2. 2n=72: Black nightshade
(Ogg, Rogers, and Schilling, 1986); (Ogg, 1981)
B. Scope
1. Nightshades are found in 73 countries of the world (Majek, 1981).
2. Solanum found throughout the United States and Canada and on 6 continents.
(Kempen, 1985); (Hwang, 1983); (Fortuin, 1980); (O’Sullivan, 1983)
C. Economic Impact
1. Nightshades are pests of 37 crops (Majek, 1981). These include:
a. Corn
b. Soybeans
c. Cotton
d. Grain Sorghum
e. Sugarbeets
f. Tomato
g. Peppers
h. Onion
i. Garlic
j. Potato
k. Melons
(Kempen, 1985)
2. Nebraska estimates economic losses due to nightshade infestations of bean fields alone to have reached at 12% of total income (Burget et al, 1973).
D. Importance to Humans
1. Blacknightshade used as a vegetable in China, Russia, Africa, and elsewhere around the world.
2. Roots used to cure ailments by the people of India.
3. Berries of black nightshade have been used in cooking.
4. Possible source of corticosteroids, sex hormones and oral contraceptives. (Khanna et al, 1980); (Bhatt et al, 1983).
5. Several species of Solanum are used as ornamentals (Fuller and McClintock, 1986).
E. History
1. Used as a food source for many centuries.
2. Used in folk medicine.
3. Tribes of the American Southwest used berries for tanning leather, and in foods.
(Bassett and Munro, 1985)
F. Origins: Solanum species originated in many different areas of the world.
1. Eastern black nightshade is native to the United States
2. Black nightshade was probably introduced to the U.S. from Europe in the 1800’s.
3. Hairy nightshade was introduced from South America
4. Silverleaf nightshade is native to the central states area of the United States and south into Mexico.
5. Kangaroo apple is native to Australia.
6. Bittersweet is native to Europe and Asia.
(Bassett and Munro, 1985); (Fuller and McClintock, 1986)
II. Biology of Solanum: this section addresses similarities and differences in physiological characteristics of the plants, in some cases, details for a few of the species are provided to give an idea of the scope of differences and in part to highlight species of particular interest as weeds.
A. Morphology
1. Height varies considerably among plants of this genus.
a. Black nightshade: .5 meters
b. Eastern black nightshade: up to 1 meter
c. Hairy nightshade: .8 meters
d. Douglas’ nightshade: 6 feet tall
e. American black nightshade: 1.2 meters tall
(Ogg, 1981); (Fuller and McClintock, 1986)
2. Degree of branching and plant stance varies among species.
a. Black nightshade: erect or prostrate; sparsely branching
b. Eastern black nightshade: erect
c. Hairy nightshade: spreading
d. American black nightshade: erect
(Ogg, 1981); (Fuller and McClintock, 1986)
3. Flowers
a. Star-shaped
b. White to purple
(Ogg, 1981); (Fuller and McClintock, 1986)
4. Fruit -- The glabourous berries range in color from black to a light yellow
and contain a sticky substance in which the seeds are located.
a. Black nightshade: 5-10mm in diameter; black or dark green at maturity (Weed ID)
b. Bittersweet: 12-16mm in diameter, bright red, egg-shaped berries (Weed ID)
c. Horse nettle: 10-15mm in diameter, yellow when mature (Stephens, 1980).
d. American black nightshade: dark purple, 7-9mm in diameter (Stephens, 1980)
5. Seeds
a. Description
1. Bittersweet: yellowish, flat, round (Weed ID)
2. Horse nettle: irregularly circular, 2-2.5 mm across, flattened, yellow or brownish (Stephens, 1980).
b. Numbers of seeds per berry.
1. Eastern black nightshade: 50+ seeds / berry (Bassett and Munro,1985)
2. Hairy nightshade: 20 – 28 seeds / berry (Bassett and Munro, 1985)
3. Silverleaf nightshade: 75 seeds / berry (Australia #79, 1980)
c. Numbers of berries per plant.
1. Eastern black nightshade:50 -100 (Bassett and Munro, 1985)
2. Hairy nightshade: up to 1755 (Bassett and Munro, 1985)
3. Silverleaf nightshade: up to 60 berries per plant (Australia #79,1980)
B. Life Cycle: Some Solanum members are annuals while others are perennials.
1. Annual species
a. Eastern black nightshade (although short-lived perennials have been observed)
b. Black nightshade
c. Hairy nightshade
d. Buffalobur
2. Perennial species
a. Silverleaf Nightshade
b. European Bittersweet
c. Horse Nettle
(Muenscher, 1935)
C. Reproduction
1. Primairly self-pollinated (facultatively autogamous)
2. Means of Propagation
a. Seeds -- Housed in berries, which are described above in the morphology section.
b. Rhizomes – Silverleaf nightshade; Horse nettle
1. Silverleaf nightshade rhizomes may extend 2m from original plant
2. Pieces as small as 1 cm retain ability to sprout from depths of 10cm
3. Pieces of taproot have remained viable for up to 15 months
4. Average of 5 lateral rhizomes, generally in top 60 cm of soil
(Boyd et al, 1991); (Fernandez and Brevedan, 1972); (Australia Pamphlet #79, 1980); (Richardson, 1981); (Rogers, 1981); (Muenscher,1935)
D. Soil Seed Bank
1. Weller and Phipps (1978) estimated that potentially 104 million seeds / Hectare of black nightshade may exist in some farmland of England.
2. Nightshade seed can germinate after being in the soil for 39 years (Toole and Brown, 1946).
III. Growth and Development
A. Germination Requirements
1. Light
a. Black nightshade: better in 13 hour photoperiod then complete darkness (Thullen and Keeley, 1982).
b. Eastern black nightshade: light is necessary for germination (Ogg, 1984).
c. Silverleaf nightshade: light not a factor (Jacobsen, 1982); (Ogg, 1984).
2. pH
a. Eastern black nightshade: no pH effect in the 3-10 range if light is available (Ogg, 1984).
b. Silverleaf nightshade: maximum germination at 6 – 7 (Boyd and Murray, 1982).
3. Temperature
a. Black nightshade: optimum is 80-90 degrees F (Thullen and Keeley, 1982).
b. Eastern black nightshade: minimum of 25 degrees C for emergence from undisturbed soil (Ogg, 1984).
c. Silverleaf nightshade: maximum germination at 25 –30 degrees C
(Boyd, 1981).
4. Depth of Burial
a. Black nightshade: maximum from .25 - .5 inches (Thullen and Keeley, 1982).
b. Eastern black nightshade: stored at room temperature – seeds did not emerge from depths over 1 cm. Cold treated treated seeds emerged from depths up to 4 cm.
c. Silverleaf nightshade: maximum emergence from 1-2.5 cm
B. Time of Emergence: Solanum species begin emerging the first few weeks of April; peak mid-April to mid-May and continue through September (Ogg, 1984).
C. Effect of Light on growth
1. Shade can significantly slow berry formation
2. Under canopy of soybean crop, low light intensity limited or halted vegetative and reproductive growth (Myers, 1982)
IV. Weedy Nature of Solanum
A. Decrease yield of host crop
1. Even low populations of black nightshade cause severe reduction in yield of tomatoes (Maillet, 1983)
2. In peanuts, yield was reduced by 10% after 4 weeks exposure to silverleaf nightshade; 47% after 8 weeks; and 65% after 12 weeks (Hackett, 1982).
3. In soybeans, yield was only reduced in the highest plant density used in an experiment (74 plants / sq. meter) and only if competition continues for over 6 weeks.
a. Affected number of pods / plant
b. Affected number of branches bearing pods
(Le, 1983); (Martin, 1982), (Mirsa, 1983)
4. Reduces water availability to cotton in the lower portion of the soil profile (Green, 1988).
B. Decrease quality of crop
1. It is generally considered difficult to remove the dried berries from a pea or soybean crop by conventional cleaning equipment, in general practice. However, Mirsa (1983) reports that stored beans and berries can be separated.
2. Add moisture to crop allowing mold to form
3. Berry juice can stain soybeans: In North Central U.S., soybean harvests are halted if there is one nightshade plant per 3 m of row (Majek, 1981)
4. Presence of seed
a. Mechanical difficulties at harvest
b. Berry juices can glue together chaff, seed, and soil and clog augers
c. Plants form a sticky mass because of sticky juices. This can clog up a combine.
(Bassett and Munro, 1985)
C. Poisonous nature of certain members of Solanum adds to the problems caused by infestations.
1. Not always poisonous (Fortuin, 1980); (El Bahri, 1981); (Brenchley, 1920).
2. Poisoning is in the form of alkaloids, specifically solanine (Stephens, 1980).
3. Effects have been documented in cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, ducks, and chickens.
a. Cattle that ingested ripe silverleaf nightshade berries equal to .1 -.3% of their body weight suffered moderate symptoms of poisoning (Dullahite and Allen, 1960).
b. Cattle dies from solanine levels between 3 and 25g /100 kg (Becker, 1956).
c. Black nightshade content of 20% in silage produced near toxic solanine levels (Weller and Phipps, 1978).
D. Dispersal of seeds takes place by several mechanisms.
1. Rodents
2. Birds
3. Livestock – while not necessary for germination, seeds can survive the digestive system.
4. Man
a. By movement of machinery
b. By movement of infected seed
5. Tumbleweed effect
6. Water
(Bassett and Munro, 1985)
V. Natural pests of Solanum: plants can act as hosts for pests which also damage economically important crops.
A. Nematodes: Nothanguina phyllobia (Northam, 1982)
B. Insects
1. Leptinotarsa decernlineata (Lazareva, 1980)
2. Anthonomus eugenii Cano – the pepper weevil (Burke and Woodruff, 1980)
3. Winter moth of cotton (Khamraev, 1980)
4. Noctuid Loxagrotis albicosta – western bean cut worm (Blickenstaff and Jolley, 1982).
5. Sorghum panicle-feeding bug
6. Myzus persicae (Hwang, 1983)
C. Parasitic Plants
1. Clover dodder, Cuscuta trifolii (Brenchley, 1920)
VI. Management Strategies
A. Planting a crop at a strategic time before the development of the nightshades can help avoid some of the damage they cause to the crop if the crop can successfully out-compete the weed. (Ramsel, 1982)
B. Biological Control
1. Using Nematodes
a. Silverleaf nightshade has been controlled by Nothanguina phyllobia
b. Reduction of fruiting and growth development. Over 80% control was achieved in 2 field tests after four years (Orr, 1981); (Nickle,1981); (Northam, 1982).
c. Silverleaf nightshade can be controlled with Orrina phyllobia (Parker, 1986).
2. Using Insects
a. Prickly nightshade infestations have been decreased by the use of the beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Lazareva, 1980); (Majek, 1981); (Keeley and Thullen, 1983).
3. Mycoherbicides
a. Eastern black nightshade has been controlled with the fungus Colletotrichum coccodes in tomatoes and potatoes with no disease resulting on the crop (Anderson and Walker, 1985).
C. Use of Herbicides – Several different herbicides have been reported for use in controlling Solanum species alone or in combinations
1. Glyphosphate (Stubblefield, 1985)
2. Metham (Kempen, 1985); (Ogg, 1984)
3. Alachlor (Branthome, 1983); (Ogg, 1984); (Arnold, 1985); (Rodrigue, Witt and Slack, 1981)
4. Metribuzine (Branthome, 1983); (Ogg, 1984)
5. Butam (Branthome, 1983)
6. Metachlor (Ogg, 1984); (Arnold, 1985); (Price, 1982); (Bates, 1982); (Kukorwski, 1982); (Martin, 1982); (Rodrigue, Witt and Slack, 1981)
7. Chloramben (Ogg, 1984); (Arnold, 1985); (Price, 1982); (Bates, 1982); (Kukorwski, 1982); (Martin, 1982); (O’Sullivan, 1983)
8. Pendimethalin (Ogg, 1984)
9. Diclofop-methyl (Ogg, 1984)
10. Acifluorfen (Orr, 1984); (Le, 1983); (Arnold, 1985); (Gorske, 1982)
11. Linuron (Le, 1983)
12. Oxyfluorfen (Le, 1983)
13. Propachlor (Le, 1983)
14. Bifenox (Le, 1983)
VI. Herbicide Resistance
A. Resistance to several herbicides has been found in many weedy Solanums to differing degrees. The strongest resistance is found in black nightshade (Ogg, 1986); (Vandeventer, 1982).
B. Black nightshade populations have been found that are resistant to paraquat, atrazine, simazine and triazine (Herbicide Resistant Weeds Survey, 1997); (Sanger and Baroux, 1980).
C. Efforts have been made to transfer resistance to atrazine into the economically important Solanum species, the potato (Gressel, Binding, Cohen, Finger, Jain, Mordhorst, and Nehls, 1983).
I. Introduction
Bassett, I.J. and Munro, D.B., 1985. The biology of Canadian weeds: Solanum ptycanthum Dun., S. nigrum L. and S. sarrachoides Sendt. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 65:401-414.
Boyd, J.W.; Murray, D.S. and Tyrl, R.J., 1984. Silverleaf nightshade, Solanum elaeagnifolium, origin, distribution and relation to man. Economic Botany, 38:210-217.
Burgert, K.L.; Burnside, O.C. and Fenster, C.R., 1973. Black nightshade leaves its mark. Quarterly Serving Farm, Ranch and Home, Lincoln College of Agriculture, University of Nebraska, 20:8-10.
Edmonds, J.M. and Chweya, J.A., 1997. Black nightshades: Solanum nigrum L. and related species. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI); Rome; Italy, 15:9.
Fawcett, R.S. and Jennings, V.M., 1979. Black nightshade. Weeds Today, 10:21
Fuller, T.C. and McClintock, E., 1986. Poisonous Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.
Gunn, C.R. and Gaffney, F.B., 1974. Seed characteristics of 42 economically important species of Solanaceae in the United States. Technical Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture, Page 1474.
Khanna, P.; Bhargava, C; and Rathore, A., 1980. Incorporation of cholesterol in suspension cultures of Solanum nigrum. Egypt. J. Pharm. Science. 21:165-168.
Muenscher, W.C., 1935. Weeds. Macmillian, New York, USA. Page 409 – 414.
Ogg, A.G., 1977. Characterization of black and hairy nightshade. Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science, 30:19.
Ogg, A.G. and Rogers, B.S., 1989. Taxonomy, distribution, biology, and control and black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) and related species in the United States and Canada. Reviews of Weed Science, 4:25-58.
Omta, S.W.F. and Fortuin, F.T.J.M., 1979. Solanum nigrum L., the black nightshade, as a vegetable in the tropics, with special reference to West Java. Vegetables for the Hot, Humid Tropics, 4:6-8.
Phillips, R., 1997. Checklist of Vascular Plants in New England. Http://www.colby.edu/info.tech/BI211/Checklist.NE.Plants/Solanacae.html.
Rogers, B.S. and Ogg, A.G., 1981. Biology of weeds in the Solanum nigrum complex (Solanum section Solanum) in North America. Science and Education Administration, Agricultural Reviews and Manuals, Western Series, ARM W:23-55.
Rutherford, P.A., 1979. Distribution and spread of silverleaf nightshade in Western Australia. Proceedings of the Western Australia Weeds Conference. Pages 22-23.
Schulz, D.; Eilert, U.; Willker, W.; Leibfritz, D. and Ehmke, A., 1992. Steroidal glycoalkaloids from Solanum triflorum [a weedy nightshade species endemic to Canada and parts of the USA].
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Stephens, H.A.,1980. Poisonous Plants of the Central United States. The Regents Press of Kansas: Lawrence, Kansas, USA. Page 95 – 97.
Weller, R.F. and Phipps, R.H., 1978. A review of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.). Protection Ecology, 1:121-139.
II. Biology
Bassett, I.J. and Munro, D.B., 1985. The biology of Canadian weeds: Solanum ptycanthum Dun., S. nigrum L. and S. sarrachoides Sendt. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 65:401-414.
Beingolea, G., 1971. Contribution to the knowledge of the Ortheziids of Peru. II. Bionomics: development and reproduction. Sociedad Entomologica del Peru: Proceedings of the First Latin American Congress of Entomology, Cuzco, Peru, April 12th-18th, 1971. Revista Peruana de Entomologia, 14:33-40.
Bell, C.E.; Eleftherohorinos, I.G. and Kotoula Syka, E., 1990. Biology and control of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). Zizaniology, 2:135-143.
Brenchley, W.E., 1920. Weeds of Farm Land. Longmans, London, UK.
Ciarka, D. and Gawronski, W., 1996. Biology and control of black nightshade resistant to triazine herbicides. Ochrona Roslin, 40:3-5.
Cooley, A.W. and Smith, D.T., 1972. Seed aspects of two perennials, woolly leaf bursage and silverleaf nightshade. Proceedings 25th Annual Meeting Southern Weed Science Society, Page 443.
Eijlander, R. and Stiekema, W.J., 1994. Biological containment of potato (Solanum tuberosum): outcrossing to the related wild species black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) and bittersweet (Solanum dulcamara). Sexual Plant Reproduction, 7: 29-40.
Eldridge, A.C. and Hockridge, M.E., 1983. High performance liquid chromatographic separation of Eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum) glycoalkaloids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 31:1218-1220.
Fawcett, R.S. and Jennings, V.M., 1979. Black nightshade. Weeds Today, 10:21
Fuller, T.C. and McClintock, E., 1986. Poisonous Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.
Gunn, C.R. and Gaffney, F.B., 1974. Seed characteristics of 42 economically important species of Solanaceae in the United States. Technical Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture, Page 1474.
Hermanutz, L.A. and Weaver, S.E., 1991. Germination and growth of Solanum ptycanthum and Solanum sarrachoides. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 71: 167.
Hermanutz, L.A. and Weaver, S.E., 1991. Variability in temperature dependent germination in eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum). Canadian Journal of Botany, 69:1463-1470.
Keeley, P.E. and Thullen, R.J., 1991. Biology and control of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Weed Technology, 5: 713-722.
Keeley, P.E. and Thullen, R.J., 1993. Weeds in cotton: their biology, ecology, and control. Technical Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture: No. 1810.
Le, T.K. and Ilnicki, R.D., 1983. Some preliminary studies on the biology and control of black nightshade. Proceedings of the 37th annual meeting of the Northeastern Weed Science Society, 1983. Page 19.
Majek, B.A., 1981. Nightshade identification and control. Weeds Today. 12:2-6.
Martin, J.R. and Herron, J.W., 1986. Eastern black nightshade a growing concern in Kentucky. Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society, 39th annual meeting, Page 381
Muenscher, W.C., 1935. Weeds. Macmillian, New York, USA. Page 409 – 414.
Ogg, A.G., 1977. Characterization of black and hairy nightshade. Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science, 30:19.
Phillips, R., 1997. Checklist of Vascular Plants in New England. Http://www.colby.edu/info.tech/BI211/Checklist.NE.Plants/Solanacae.html.
Rogers, B.S. and Ogg, A.G., 1981. Biology of weeds in the Solanum nigrum complex (Solanum section Solanum) in North America. Science and Education Administration, Agricultural Reviews and Manuals, Western Series, ARM W:23-55.
Rutherford, P.A., 1979. Distribution and spread of silverleaf nightshade in Western Australia. Proceedings of the Western Australia Weeds Conference. Pages 22-23.
Sinclair, N., 1996. Solanum citrullifolium: the melon leaf nightshade. New Plantsman, 3:112-119.
Stephens, H.A.,1980. Poisonous Plants of the Central United States. The Regents Press of Kansas: Lawrence, Kansas, USA. Page 95 – 97.
Vandeventer, J.W.; Meggitt, W.F. and Penner, D., 1978. Morphological and physiological variability in black nightshade. Abstracts 1978 Meeting Weed Science Society of America, Page 77.
Vandeventer, J.W.; Meggitt, W.F. and Penner, D., 1982. Morphological and physiological variability in black nightshade Solanum spp. Pesticide Science, 13:257-262.
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Weller, R.F. and Phipps, R.H., 1978. A review of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.). Protection Ecology, 1:121-139.
III. Growth and Development
Beingolea, G., 1971. Contribution to the knowledge of the Ortheziids of Peru. II. Bionomics: development and reproduction. Sociedad Entomologica del Peru: Proceedings of the First Latin American Congress of Entomology, Cuzco, Peru, April 12th-18th, 1971. Revista Peruana de Entomologia, 14:33-40.
Brenchley, W.E., 1920. Weeds of Farm Land. Longmans, London, UK.
Bouhache, M.; Boulet, C. and El Karakhi, F., 1993. Seasonal changes in non structural carbohydrates in silver leaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.). Weed Research Oxford. 33:291-298.
Boyd, J.W., 1981. Effects of certain environmental factors on the growth and development of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). Dissertation Abstracts International, 42:3513-3514.
Boyd, J.W. and Murray, D.S., 1981. Environmental factors affecting silverleaf nightshade (Solanum eleagnifolium) growth from established perennials. Proceedings 34th Annual Meeting Southern Weed Science Society. Page 257.
Boyd, J.W. and Murray, D.S., 1982. Growth and development of silver leaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). Weed Science, 30:238-243.
Boyd, J.W.; Murray, D.S., 1982. Effects of shade on silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). Weed Science, 30:264-269.
Chand, P.K.; Davey, M.R. and Power, J.B. Efficient plant regeneration from cell suspension protoplasts of the woody medicinal plant Solanum dulcamara L. (bittersweet, woody nightshade). Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 22:119-125.
Chetelat, R.T.; Cisneros, P.; Stamova, L. and Rick, C.M., 1997. A male fertile Lycopersicon esculentum X Solanum lycopersicoides hybrid enables direct backcrossing to tomato at the diploid level. Euphytica, 95:99-108.
Cooley, A.W. and Smith, D.T., 1971. Silverleaf nightshade (whiteweed) establishment from seed and clipped seedlings. Consolidated Progress Reports, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. 1973, Nos. PR 3197 3209: Weed and herbicide research in West Texas,73:6-9.
Fawcett, R.S. and Jennings, V.M., 1979. Black nightshade. Weeds Today, 10:21
Fortuin. F.T. and Omta, S.W., 1980. Growth analysis and shade experiment with Solanum nigrum L., the black nightshade, a leaf and fruit vegetable in West Java. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science. 28:199 210.
Fuller, T.C. and McClintock, E., 1986. Poisonous Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.
Gunn, C.R. and Gaffney, F.B., 1974. Seed characteristics of 42 economically important species of Solanaceae in the United States. Technical Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture, Page 1474.
Hermanutz, L.A. and Weaver, S.E., 1991. Germination and growth of Solanum ptycanthum and Solanum sarrachoides. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 71: 167.
Hermanutz, L.A. and Weaver, S.E., 1991. Variability in temperature dependent germination in eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum). Canadian Journal of Botany, 69:1463-1470.
Kazinczi, G. and Hunyadi, K., 1990. Germination of seeds of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) from different coloured berries. Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz. Sonderheft, Page 83-88.
Khanna, P.; Bhargava, C; and Rathore, A., 1980. Incorporation of cholesterol in suspension cultures of Solanum nigrum. Egypt. J. Pharm. Science. 21:165-168.
Kurnosov, V.V. and Pikova, L.A., 1975. The productivity of lobate nightshade in relation to the density of the plant stand and the level of nitrogen nutrition.
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Le, T.K. and Ilnicki, R.D., 1983. Some preliminary studies on the biology and control of black nightshade. Proceedings of the 37th annual meeting of the Northeastern Weed Science Society, 1983. Page 19.
Lindsay, G.C.; Hopping, M.E.; Binding, H. and Burge, G.K., 1995. Graft chimeras and somatic hybrids for new cultivars. New Zealand Journal of Botany, 33:79-92.
Majek, B.A., 1981. Nightshade identification and control. Weeds Today. 12:2-6.
Martin, J.R.; Herron, J.W. and Jacques, R.M., 1982. Status of eastern black nightshade in Kentucky. Proceedings, North Central Weed Control Conference, Page 108-109.
Moiseev, R.K., 1988. Characteristics of steroid alkaloid accumulation in nightshade during the vegetative stage and crop production. Izuchenie Lekarstvennykh Rastenii Kazakhstana, Page 123-129.
Muenscher, W.C., 1935. Weeds. Macmillian, New York, USA. Page 409 – 414.
Murage, E.N.; Chweya, J.A. and Imungi, J.K., 1996. Changes in leaf yield and nutritive quality of the black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) as influenced by nitrogen application. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 35:149-157.
Myers, R.A. and Stoller, E.W., 1982. Responses of eastern black nightshade to light. Proceedings, North Central Weed Control Conference, Page 47.
Myers, R.A. and Stoller, E.W., 1983. Effects of reduced irradiance on eastern black nightshade. Proceedings, North Central Weed Control Conference. Columbus, Ohio; USA:34.
Myers, R.A. and Stoller, E.W., 1984. Effects of shade on seed production of eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum). Proceedings, North Central Weed Control Conference, 39:91.
Myers, R.A. and Stoller, E.W., 1985. Eastern black nightshade plant growth and berry production in soybeans. Proceedings, North Central Weed Control Conference, 40:8-9.
Nicholson, K.S.; Wardle, D.A.; and Popay, A.J., 1994. Decomposition of weed tissues in a pasture and a maize crop: implications for nutrient cycling. Proceedings of the forty-seventh New Zealand plant protection conference, Waitangi, New Zealand, August 9-11, 1994. New Zealand Plant Protection Society; Rotorua, New Zealand, Page 29-33.
Ogg, A.G., 1977. Characterization of black and hairy nightshade. Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science, 30:19.
Ogg, A.G. and Dawson, J.H., 1984. Time of emergence of eight weed species. Weed Science, 32:327-335.
Ogg, A.G.; Rogers, B.S. and Schilling, E.E., 1981. Characterization of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) and related species in the United States. Weed Science, 29:27-32.
Peterson, J.K. and Harrison, H.F. Jr., 1991. Differential inhibition of seed germination by sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas) root periderm extracts. Weed Science, 39:119-123.
Phillips, R., 1997. Checklist of Vascular Plants in New England. Http://www.colby.edu/info.tech/BI211/Checklist.NE.Plants/Solanacae.html.
Rutherford,P.A., 1978. Effect of time of immersion in running and still water on the germination of silver leaf nightshade. Proceedings of the First Conference of the Council of Australian Weed Science Societies, Page 372-378.
Stephens, H.A.,1980. Poisonous Plants of the Central United States. The Regents Press of Kansas: Lawrence, Kansas, USA. Page 95 – 97.
Thomson, C.E. and Witt, W.W., 1987. Germination of cutleaf groundcherry (Physalis angulata), smooth groundcherry (Physalis virginiana), and eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum). Weed Science, 35:58-62.
Thullen, R.J. and Keeley, P.E., 1982. The effects of some environmental conditions on the germination of black nightshade and ivyleaf morning glory. Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science. 35:76-82.
Toole, E.H. and Brown, E., 1946. Final results of the Duvel buried seed experiment. Journal of Agricultural Research, 72:201-210.
Vandeventer, J.W.; Meggitt, W.F. and Penner, D., 1978. Morphological and physiological variability in black nightshade. Abstracts 1978 Meeting Weed Science Society of America, Page 77.
Vandeventer, J.W.; Meggitt, W.F. and Penner, D., 1982. Morphological and physiological variability in black nightshade Solanum spp. Pesticide Science, 13:257-262.
Wan, X.S.; Wang, F.D.; Wang, G.Y.; Ye, X.F.; Xia, Z.A.; Zhang, X.M. and Lin, F.L., 1988. Regeneration of somatic hybrid plants of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) and black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.). Acta Biologiae Experimentalis Sinica, 21:245-247.
Weller, R.F. and Phipps, R.H., 1978. A review of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.). Protection Ecology, 1:121-139.
IV. Weedy Nature
Alley, H.P., 1976. Research in weed science. Research Journal, Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, 91R:99.
Alley, H.P. and Humburg, N.E., 1980. Research in weed science. Research Journal, Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, 147:1-33.
Annual reports of the German Plant Protection Service, 1976. Braunschweig, 1977. Pp 99-102.
Arnold, S.J., 1985. Eastern black nightshade:an increasing concern for soybean and forage producers. Crops and Soils Magazine, 1985, 37:29-31.
Bahri L., 1981. Black nightshade, Solanum nigrum. Notes de Toxicologie Veterinaire. 4:1, 49 52; Fiche Toxicologique No.35.
Bassett, I.J. and Munro, D.B., 1985. The biology of Canadian weeds: Solanum ptycanthum Dun., S. nigrum L. and S. sarrachoides Sendt. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 65:401-414.
Becker, A., 1956. Black nightshade and poisoning of cattle. Gesunde Pflazen 8:42-45.
Bhatt, P.N., Bhatt, D.P., and Sussex, I., 1983. Studies on some factors affection solasodine contents in tissue culture of Solanum nigrum. Physiol. Plant 57: 159-162.
Blackshaw, R.E., 1991. Hairy nightshade (Solanum sarrachoides) interference in dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Weed Science, 39:48-53.
Blackshaw, R.E. and Esau, R., 1991. Control of broadleaf weeds in pinto beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Weed Technology, 5:532-538.
Blackshaw, R.E. and Lym, R.G., 1991. Hairy nightshade (Solanum sarrachoides) interference in dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science, Seattle, Washington, USA, March 12-14, 1991. Western Society of Weed Science; Newark, California, USA, 44:19-21.
Brenchley, W.E., 1920. Weeds of Farm Land. Longmans, London, UK.
Carringer, R.D. and Bryant, W.E., 1980. Black nightshade control in soybeans. Proceedings North Central Weed Control Conference, 35:50.
Caussanel, J.P.; Fatah, H.A.E.; Branthome, X.; Maillet, J. and Jacquard, P., 1989. Competition between nightshade (Solanum sp.) and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill):experimental results obtained in France. Proceedings of the 4th EWRS symposium on weed problems in Mediterranean climates. Vol. 2. Problems of weed control in fruit, horticultural crops and rice, Page 33-45.
Control of nightshade in haricot beans. Efficacy of control programmes based on pre sowing herbicides, 1987. France, Union Nationale Interprofessionnelle des Legumes de Conserve. Compte Rendu des Essais, UNILEC, Union Nationale Interprofessionnelle des Legumes de Conserve:March:63-67.
Cuthbertson, E.G.; Leys, A.R. and McMaster, G., 1976. Silverleaf nightshade a potential threat to agriculture. Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, 87:11-13.
Dollahite, J.W. and Alle, T.J., 1960. Silverleaf nightshade poisoning in livestock. Texas Ag Experimentation Station Progress Report No. 2146.
Drew, M.L. and Fowler, M.E., 1991. Poisoning of black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) by hairy nightshade (Solanum sarrachoides). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 22:494-496.
Edmonds, J.M. and Chweya, J.A., 1997. Black nightshades: Solanum nigrum L. and related species. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI); Rome; Italy, 15:9.
El Bahri, L., 1981. Black nightshade, Solanum nigrum. Notes de Toxicologie Veterinaire, 4:49-52.
Fennimore, S.A.; Mitich, L.W. and Radosevich, S.R., 1984. Interference among bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus galli), and black nightshade (Solanum nigrum). Weed Science, 32:336-342.
Fuller, T.C. and McClintock, E., 1986. Poisonous Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.
Ghazi, M. and Matthees, D.P., 1989. Use of ion pairing reversed phase liquid chromatography in separation of solanidine and solasodine. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 15: 2661-2666.
Gonzalez P.R.; Zancada, C.; Verdugo, M. and Salas, M.L., 1996. Plant height as a factor in competition between black nightshade and two horticultural crops (tomato and pepper). Journal of Horticultural Science, 71:453-460.
Gorini, F., 1979. Vegetable list. 10. Fruiting and leafy vegetables. 10.1. Black nightshade (vegetable of secondary importance). Informatore di Ortoflorofrutticoltura, 20:4-8.
Green, J.D.; Murray, D.S. and Stone, J.F., 1988. Soil water relations of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) with cotton (Gossypium hirsutum).
Weed Science, 36:740-746.
Green, J.D.; Murray, D.S. and Verhalen, L.M., 1985. Interference of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) with cotton. Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society, 38th annual meeting, Page 397.
Green, J.D.; Murray, D.S. and Verhalen, L.M., 1986. Relationship of silverleaf nightshade with cotton. Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society, 39th annual meeting, Page 397.
Green, J.D.; Murray, D.S. and Verhalen, L.M., 1987. Full season interference of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) with cotton (Gossypium hirsutum).
Weed Science, 35:813-818.
Hackett, N.M. and Murray, D.S., 1982. Interference of siverleaf nightshade (Solanum eleagnifolium) with Spanish peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). Proceedings 35th Annual Meeting Southern Weed Science Society, Page 66.
Hackett, N.M.; Murray, D.S. and Weeks, D.L., 1987. Interference of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) on Spanish peanuts (Arachis hypogaea). Peanut Science, 14:39-41.
Hornfeldt, C.S. and Collins, J.E., 1990. Toxicity of nightshade berries (Solanum dulcamara) in mice. Journal of Toxicology, Clinical Toxicology, 28:185-192.
Jacobson, B.D.; Murray, D.S. and Stone, J.F., 1994. Soil water extraction profiles of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and weed species. Weed Technology, 8:190-198.
James, L.F.; Evans, J.O.; Ralphs, M.H.; and Child, R.D., 1991. Noxious Range Weeds. Westview Special Studies in Agriculture Science and Policy: Boulder, Colorado, USA.
Jones, A.G., 1977. Black nightshade. Major weed spreads into vegetables. Grower, 87:686-687.
Keeley, P.E. and Thullen, R.J., 1989. Growth and competition of black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) and Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) with cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). Weed Science, 37:326-334.
Keeley, P.E. and Thullen, R.J., 1993. Weeds in cotton: their biology, ecology, and control. Technical Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture: No. 1810.
Kempen, H.M., 1986. Nightshade, cotton's no. 1 enemy. Proceedings, 38th annual California weed conference. El Macero, California, USA:136-144.
LaMondia, J.A., 1995. Hatch and reproduction of Globodera tabacum tabacum in response to tobacco, tomato, or black nightshade. Journal of Nematology, 27:382-386.
Lazareva, M.P., 1980. A quarantine pest against a quarantine weed. Zashchita Rastenii. No. 6, 41.
Love, S.L.; Eberlein, C.V.; Stark, J.C. and Bohl, W.H., 1996. Cultivar and seedpiece spacing effects on potato competitiveness with weeds. American Potato Journal, 72:197 213.
Maillet, J. and Abdel-Fatah, H., 1983. Preliminary studies on competition between Solanum nigrum subsp. eu nigrum L. (black nightshade) and transplanted Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. (tomato). Weed Research, UK, 23:217-219.
McGiffen, M.E. Jr.; Masiunas, J.B. and Hesketh, J.D., 1992. Competition for light between tomatoes and nightshades (Solanum nigrum or S. ptycanthum). Weed Science, 40:220-226.
McGiffen, M.E. Jr.; Masiunas, J.B. and Huck, M.G., 1992. Tomato and nightshade (Solanum nigrum L. and S. ptycanthum Dun.) effects on soil water content. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 117:730-735.
McGiffen, M.E. Jr.; Pantone. D.J. and Masiunas, J.B., 1994. Path analysis of tomato yield components in relation to competition with black and eastern black nightshade. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 119: 6-11.
Misra, M.K.,1983. Removal of black nightshade berries from soybean seeds.
Paper, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, No. 833507.
Mitich, L.W. and Kyser, G.B., 1986. Economic losses and control of nightshade in dry beans. Proceedings, 38th annual California weed conference. El Macero, California, USA:128-135.
Perez, F.G.M. and Masiunas, J.B., 1990. Eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum) interference in processing tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Weed Science, 38:385-338.
Quakenbush, L.S. and Andersen, R.N., 1984. Effect of soyabean (Glycine max) interference on eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum). Weed Science, 32:638-645.
Senger, E. and Baroux, D., 1980. Herbicides and resistance: toxicological significance. Notes de Toxicologie Veterinaire, 8:444-445.
Smith, B.S.; Pawlak, J.A.; Murray, D.S.; Verhalen, L.M. and Green, J.D., 1990. Interference from established stands of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium) on cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) lint yield. Weed Science, 38:129-133.
Smith, L.D., 1990. Documentation of weed infestations in southwest Oklahoma cotton.
Proceedings: Beltwide Cotton Production Research Conferences, Page 369-370.
Stoller, E.W. and Myers, R.A., 1989. Effects of shading and soybean Glycine max (L.) interference on Solanum ptycanthum (Dun.) (eastern black nightshade) growth and development. Weed Research Oxford, 29:307-316.
Stoller, E.W. and Myers, R.A., 1989. Response of soybeans (Glycine max) and four broadleaf weeds to reduced irradiance. Weed Science, 37:570-574.
Strawberries: mayweed, a "blazing white" problem in a special class, 1978. Grower,89:355-360.
Tamboia, T.; Cipollini, M.L.; Levey, D.J., 1996. An evaluation of vertebrate seed dispersal syndromes in four species of black nightshade (Solanum sect. Solanum). Oecologia, 107:522-532.
Torner, C. and Gonzalez Andujar, J.L., 1993. 'Area of influence' of 'black nightshade' (Solanum nigrum L.) in transplanted peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Proceedings of the 1993 Congress of the Spanish Weed Science Society, Lugo, Spain, December 1-3, 1993. Sociedad Espanola de Malherbologia (Spanish Weed Science Society); Madrid, Spain, Page 295-298.
Urwin, C.P.; Wilson, R.G. and Mortensen, D.A., 1996. Late season weed suppression from dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) cultivars. Weed Technology, 10: 699-704.
Vogel, R. and Gutzwiller, A., 1993. Black nightshade [Solanum nigrum] in silage maize: caution required! Landwirtschaft Schweiz. 1993, 6:667-673.
Vogel, R. and Gutzwiller, A., 1993. Black nightshade in ensiled maize: beware! Revue Suisse d'Agriculture, 25: 315-321.
Weaver, S.E.; Smits, N. and Tan, C.S., 1987. Estimating yield losses of tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) caused by nightshade (Solanum spp.) interference. Weed Science, 35:163-168.
Zitnak, A.; Tso, T.C.; Kelly, R.T.; Childers, N.F. and Russo, G.M., 1977. The nightshades and health. Somerset Press Inc.; Somerville, USA.
V. Natural Pests
Andersen, R.N. and Walker, H.L., 1985. Colletotrichum coccodes:a pathogen of eastern black nightshade (Solanum ptycanthum). Weed Science, 33:902-905.
Bahtt, P.N., Bhatt, D.P., and Sussex, I., 1983. Studies on some factors affection solasodine contents in tissue culture of Solanum nigrum. Physiol. Plant 57: 159-162.
Blickenstaff, C.C. and Jolley, P.M., 1982. Host plants of western bean cutworm.
Environmental Entomology. 11:421-425.
Brenchley, W.E., 1920. Weeds of Farm Land. Longmans, London, UK.
Boyette, C.D. and Abbas, H.K., 1994. Host range alteration of the bioherbicidal fungus Alternaria crassa with fruit pectin and plant filtrates. Weed Science, 42:487-491.
Burke, H.R. and Woodruff, R.E., 1980. The pepper weevil (Anthonomus eugenii Cano) in Florida (Coleoptera:Curculionidae). Entomology Circular, Division of Plant Industry, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. 219:4.
Cuda, J.P. and Burke, H.R., 1985. Biology and impact of Trichobaris texana (Coleoptera:Curculionidae) on silverleaf nightshade, Solanum elaeagnifolium in central Texas. Proceedings of the VI International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Page 721-734.
De Moraes, G.J. and McMurtry, J.A., 1987. Physiological effect of the host plant on the suitability of Tetranychus urticae as prey for Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acari:Tetranychidae, Phytoseiidae). Entomophaga, 32:35-38.
Eberlein, C.V.; Barkdoll, A.W. and Davis, J.R., 1991. Pathogenicity of Colletotrichum coccodes isolates to potato (Solanum tuberosum) and two nightshades (Solanum spp.) species.
Weed Technology, 5:570-574.
Hall, D.G. and Teetes, G.L., 1981. Alternate host plants of sorghum panicle feeding bugs in southeast central Texas, Southwestern Entomologist. 6:220-228.
Hartman, G.L. and Huang, Y.H., 1993. Pathogenicity and virulence of Phytophthora capsici isolates from Taiwan on tomatoes and other selected hosts. Plant Disease, 77: 588-591.
Heap, J.W., 1992. Golden dodder and silverleaf nightshade. Study tour to USA. Technical Report Department of Agriculture, South Australia. No. 190.
Hwang, J.S. and Hsieh, F.K., 1983. Development biology and population growth of the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer). Plant Protection Bulletin, Taiwan, 25:77-86.
Katakura, H.; Hosogai, T., 1997. Host preference of F1 hybrids between two host specific phytophagous ladybird beetles (Epilachna spp., Epilachninae, Coccinellidae). Japanese Journal of Entomology, 65:75-79.
Lee, J.H.; Reed, D.K.; Lee, H.P. and Carlson, R.W., 1988. Parasitoids of Henosepilachna vigintioctomaculata (Moschulsky) (Coleoptera:Coccinellidae) in Kyonggido area, Korea.
Korean Journal of Applied Entomology, 27:28-34.
Lin, C.H.; Hsu, S.T.and Tzeng, K.C., 1994. Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) a new host of Pseudomonas solanacearum in Taiwan. Plant Pathology Bulletin 3:147-155.
Mahdavi, A.; Solomon, K.R. and Hubert, J.J., 1991. Effect of solanaceous hosts on toxicity and synergism of permethrin and fenvalerate in Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae) larvae. Environmental Entomology, 20: 427-432.
Northam, F.E. and Orr, C.C., 1977. Greenhouse induced nematode infections of silverleaf nightshade. Research Highlights, 1977 Noxious Brush and Weed Control; Range and Wildlife Management. Texas Tech University. Lubbock, Texas, USA, 8:43.
Northam, F.E. and Orr, C.C., 1978. Influence of a nematode on growth and development of silverleaf nightshade. Research Highlights 1978. Noxious Brush and Weed Control; Range and Wildlife Management, 9:54-55.
Northam, F.E. and Orr, C.C., 1982. Effects of a nematode on biomass and density of silverleaf nightshade. Journal of Range Management, 35:534-573.
Orr, C.C., 1978. Nematodes for biological control of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.). Abstracts 1978 Meeting Weed Science Society of America, Page 7-8.
Orr, C.C., 1981. Nothanguina phyllobia, a nematode biocontrol of silverleaf nightshade. Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Pages 389-391.
Orr, C.C.; Abernathy, J.R. and Hudspeth, E.B., 1975. Nothanguina phyllobia, a nematode parasite of silverleaf nightshade. Plant Disease Reporter, 5:416-418.
Orr, C.C.; Abernathy, J.R. and Hudspeth, E.B., 1975. Nothanguina phyllobia a parasitic nematode of silverleaf nightshade, Solanum elaeagnifolium. Proceedings 28th Annual Meeting Southern Weed Science Society, Page 111.
Orr, C.C.; Abernathy, J.R. and Robinson, A.F., 1976. Response of silverleaf nightshade to nematodes. Proceedings 29th Annual Meeting Southern Weed Science Society, Page 159.
Orr, C.C.; Hudspeth, E.B. and Abernathy, J.R., 1976. Nematode controls silverleaf nightshade. Crops and Soils, 28:14.
Shirai, Y., 1990. Ecological studies on phytophagous lady beetles, Epilachna vigintioctomaculata complex (Coleoptera:Coccinellidae) in the Ina area, Nagano Prefecture. IV. Reproductive ability on potato or wild plants of two species of Epilachna beetles. Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology. 1990, 34:199-204.
Song, Z.Q., 1987. Studies on the occurrence and control of green bug in Algeria. Journal of Shenyang Agricultural University, Page 27-33.
Tamaki, G. and Olsen, D., 1979. Evaluation of orchard weed hosts of green peach aphid and the production of winged migrants. Environmental Entomology, 8:314-317.
Weber, D.C. and Ferro, D.N., 1996. Flight and fecundity of Colorado potato beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) fed on different diets. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 89:297-306
Weber, D.C.; Drummond, F.A.; Ferro, D.N., 1994. Recruitment of Colorado potato beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) to solanaceous hosts in the field. Environmental Entomology, 24:608-622.
Wong, A.T.S.; Tylka, G.L., 1994. Eight nonhost weed species of Heterodera glycines in Iowa. Plant Disease, 78: 365-367.
Xu, G.M. and Long, G.E., 1995. Feeding and performance of Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), reared on nightshade and potato. Journal of the Entomological Society of British Columbia, 92:73-79.
Xu, G.M.; Long, G.E. and Xu, G.M., 1997. Host plant phenology and Colorado potato beetle (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) population trends in eastern Washington. Environmental Entomology, 26:61-66.
Zarina, B. and Abid, M., 1995. New host records of root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species) in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Nematology, 13:49-50.
Zoebisch, T.G. and Schuster, D.J., 1987. Suitability of foliage of tomatoes and three weed hosts for oviposition and development of Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera:Agromyzidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 80:758-762.
VI. Management Strategies
Abbas, H.K.; Duke, S.O.; Paul, R.N.; Riley, R.T. and Tanaka, T., 1995. AAL toxin, a potent natural herbicide which disrupts sphingolipid metabolism of plants. Pesticide Science, 43:181-187.
Abbas, H.K.; Tanaka, T. and Shier, W.T., 1995. Biological activities of synthetic analogues of Alternaria alternata toxin (AAL toxin) and fumonisin in plant and mammalian cell cultures. Phytochemistry, 40:1681-1689.
Abbas, H.K.; Vesonder, R.F.; Boyette, C.D. and Peterson, S.W., 1993. Phytotoxicity of AAL toxin and other compounds produced by Alternaria alternata to jimsonweed (Datura stramonium). Canadian Journal of Botany, 71:155-160.
Abernathy J.R. and Keeling, J.W., 1979. Silverleaf nightshade control in cotton with glyphosate. Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Meeting of the Southern Weed Science Society. Page 380.
Abernathy, J.R.; Berner, R.C.; Smith, D.T. and Cooley, A.W., 1974. Influence of subsurface layering application of herbicides on cotton and silverleaf nightshade. Abstracts 1974 Meeting Weed Science Society of America, Page 10-11.
Alley, H.P., 1976. Weed control. Research Journal, Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, 100:51-75.
Atkinson, G.C., 1978. Chemical weed control. New Zealand, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Agricultural Research Division: Annual Report 1978, 9:95.
Atkinson, G.C., 1980. Chemical weed control. New Zealand, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Agricultural Research Division: Annual Report 1980, 9:95.
Babu, V.S.; Muniyappa, T.V. and Shivakumar, H.R., 1995. Control of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.) through mechanical methods. World Weeds, 2:93-98.
Babu, V.S.; Muniyappa, T.V. and Shivakumar, H.R., 1995. Studies on biology and herbicidal control of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.). World Weeds, 2:99-105.
Bates, M.R. and Kapusta, G., 1982. Herbicidal control of eastern black nightshade and other weeds in soybeans. Proceedings, North Central Weed Control Conference, Page 75.
Bauer, T.A.; Renner, K.A. and Penner, D., 1995. Response of selected weed species to postemergence imazethapyr and bentazon. Weed Technology, 9: 236-242.
Bell, C.E.; Eleftherohorinos, I.G. and Kotoula Syka, E., 1990. Biology and control of silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). Zizaniology, 2:135-143.
Bentley, M.D.; Leonard, D.E.; Leach, S.; Reynolds, E.; Stoddard, W.; Tomkinson, B.; Tomkinson, D.; Strunz, G. and Yatagai, M., 1982. Effects of some naturally occurring chemicals and extracts of non host plants on feeding by spruce budworm larvae, Choristoneura fumiferana. Technical Bulletin, Life Sciences and Agriculture Experiment Station, University of Maine, recd. 1984, No. 107, 23 pp.
Betts, M., 1975. Chemical weed control in Solanum laciniatum. Proceedings of the 28th New Zealand Weed and Pest Control Conference, Page 39-41.
Bewick, T.A.; Kostewicz, S.R.; Stall, W.M.; Shilling, D.G. and Smith, K.,1990. Interaction of cupric hydroxide, paraquat, and biotype of American black nightshade (Solanum americanum). Weed Science, 38:634-638.
Bewick, T.A.; Smith, K.; Stall, W.M. and Olson, S.M., 1996. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) cultivar and weed sensitivity to DPX E9636. Weed Technology, 9:499-503.
Bewick, T.A.; Stall, W.M.; Kostewicz, S.R. and Smith, K., 1991. Alternatives for control of paraquat tolerant American black nightshade (Solanum americana).
Weed Technology, 5:61-65.
Bewick, T.A.; Shilling, D.G. and Querns, R., 1993. Evaluation of epicuticular wax removal from whole leaves with chloroform. Weed Technology, 7:706-716.
Bingaman, B.R.; Christians, N.E., 1995. Greenhouse screening of corn gluten meal as a natural control product for broadleaf and grass weeds. HortScience, 30:1256-1259.
Blackshaw, R.E. and Esau, R., 1991. Control of broadleaf weeds in pinto beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Weed Technology, 5:532-538.
Blackshaw, R.E. and Lym, R.G., 1991. Hairy nightshade (Solanum sarrachoides) interference in dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Proceedings of the Western Society of Weed Science, Seattle, Washington, USA, March 12-14, 1991. Western Society of Weed Science; Newark, California, USA, 44:19-21.
Boydston, R.A.; Hang, A.., 1995. Rapeseed (Brassica napus) green manure crop suppresses weeds in potato (Solanum tuberosum). Weed Technology, 9:669-675.
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VII. Herbicide Resistance
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